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By: I. Dawson, M.A., M.D., M.P.H.
Associate Professor, University of Alaska at Fairbanks
In consequence muscle relaxant benzodiazepine cheap generic pletal canada, the Chinese system of writing composed of multidimensional ele ments muscle relaxant non prescription generic 50mg pletal with mastercard, each group forming a character contains the means whereby it can be rencharacters that are used exclusively for their phonetic value spasms around the heart cheap 100 mg pletal free shipping, and from these it has f 104 spasms in rectum cheap pletal online. Language S ymbols 209 dered phonetically,]apanese first stripped the characters of their phonetic coloring and then attached a distinctive phonetic Sign to each one. The Chinese system, like the]apanese, is said to be "impractical" and ill-suited for the purpose of translating spoken language into graphic terms. This is true only to the extent that writing is viewed as an economical method of transcribing narrow but precise concepts-an object achieved most efficiently by linear alignment. The language of science and technology meets such a definition, and alphabets meet its requirements. It seems to me that other procedures for expressing thought should not be overlooked, and in partiClllar those that reflect the flexibility of images, the halo of associations, and all the complementary or conflicting representations that gravitate round the central point of a concept. Chinese writing represents a state of balance unique in human history: Whatever one may say, it renders mathematical or biological concepts faithfully enough, while still preserving the possibility of using the oldest system of graphic expression-the juxtaposing of symbols to create, not sentences, but meaningful groups of images. Linear Graphism There is no need here to go into the details of the history of linear writing. This con tinuous development included every possible stage-:-from realistic representation of an object to render the word for that object, through the same representation to render the equivalent sound in other words according to the principle of the picture puzzle, through the process of simplification whereby the object is made uniden tifiable and becomes a purely phonetic symbol, to assembling discrete symbols in order to transcribe sounds through the association of letters. The development has been described many times; it is regarded as the glory of the great Civilizations, and rightly so for it was this development that put them in possession. There indeed is a direct link between the technoeconomic development of the Mediterranean and European group of civilizations and the graphic tool they per fected. We saw earlier that the role of the hand in toolmaking counterbalanced the role of the facial organs in creating verbal language; we also saw that at a certain moment just before the emergence of homo sapiens, the hand began to play a part 210 Technics and Language in creating a graphic mode of expression that counterbalanced verbal language. The hand thus became a creator of images, of symbols not directly dependent on the pro gression of verbal language but really parallel with it. The language that, for lack of a better term, I have called "mythographic" because the mental associations it arouses are of an order parallel to that of verbal myths, both lying outside the scope of strict coordinates in space and time, belongs to this period. Writing in its earliest phase preserved a great deal of this multidimensional vision; it continued to suggest mental images that, though not imprecise, were "haloed" and could point in several divergent directions. The brain of the man of ero-Magnon may have been as good as ours-at any rate, there is nothing to prove the contrary-but his means of expressing himself were far from equal to his neuronal apparatus. In primates the actions of the hands are in balance with those of the face, and a monkey makes wonderful use of this balance. It" even goes so far as to make its cheeks serve to carry food, which its hands, still required for walking, cannot do. Thereafter the one contributes to the search for a new balance through gesticulation and tools, the other through phona tion. With the emergence of graphic figurative representation, the parallelism is rees tablished. The hand has its language, with a Sight-related form of expression, and the face has its own, which relates to hearing. Between the two is the halo that confers a special character upon human thought before the invention of writing proper: the gesture interprets the word, and the word comments upon graphic expression. At the linear graphism stage that characterizes writing, the relationship between the two fields undergoes yet another development: Written language, pho neticized and linear in space, becomes completely subordinated to spoken lan guage, which is phonetic and linear in time. The dualism between graphic and verbal disappears, and the whole of human linguistic apparatus becomes a single instru ment for expressing and preserving thought-which itself is channeled increasingly toward reasoning. The Constriction o /Thought the transition from mythological to rational thinking was a very gradual shift exactly synchronous with the development of urban concentrations and of metal lurgy. What we do know suggests a process wherein contradictions between diff erent values are ordered within a participatory logic that at one time gave rise to the concept of "pre-logical" reasoning. Primitive thought appears to take place within a temporal and spatial setting which is continually open to revision (see 13). The fact that verbal language is coordinated freely with graphic figurative representation is.
Despite its generally mobile character the animal world has from the outset included a significant number of species that muscle relaxant leg cramps cheap pletal master card, without adopting the purely chemical nutritional processes of plants spasms kidney stones buy pletal 50 mg low price, have adapted themselves to capturing food while remaining immobile muscle relaxant rocuronium buy pletal 100mg without prescription. There are thus two types of dynamiC organization of animal species muscle relaxant walgreens buy pletal amex, one in which the body is constructed on a radially symmetrical pattern and one in which the symmetry of the body is bilateral. Among the invertebrates, the sponges and the coelenterates (hydras, sea anem ones, polyps) offer perfect examples of an organization in which the part played by locomotion is nil and in which the system is organized on a radial pattern. However, in certain other orders-worms, molluscs, echinoderms, or crustaceans-the sedentary habit of the adults is a secondary phenomenon, and the adoption of that way of life suggests that their evolutionary path is completely different from that of mobile species. For the purposes of our argument, these forms, which have devel oped into what is considered to be the lower animal world, are of interest only by way of comparison. They do, however, demonstrate at the lowest level of the living world what in a finalistic view would be described as a choice between two possi bilities. This apparent choice is constant and justifies the expression "branching development" used by paleontologists to describe the diversification of living beings. Bilateral organization, on the other hand, is directly relevant to our argument since, by a series of successive consequences, it is this form of organization that has led to the human being. Bilateral S ymmetry the design whereby the entire organism is placed behind the aperture for ingesting food is to be found in the most mobile of the protozoans, and except in sponges and coelenterates, it is the normal design of animal bodies. The anterior polarity of the mouth and of the organs of prehension of mobile animals is so obvious a biological and mechanical fact that to dwell upon it would be ridiculous, except perhaps in order to stress that it is this fact and no other that represents the fundamental precondition for evolution toward higher life forms. From the 28 T echnics and Language first acquisition of mobility to the present time, the general structure of an animal whether insect, fish, or mammal-has not changed. The polarization of certain organs has thus led to the formation of the arlteriorfield within which the complex operations of animals with bilateral symmetry take place. The V ertebrates Having turned our back upon the radially constructed animals and selected those whose symmetrical organization is determined by the axis of movement, we must now take leave of the invertebrates as a whole and consider the development of animals with an internal skeleton. The first appearance of vertebrates-ostracoderm fish (figure 6), still lacking a jaw, which illustrate vertebrate organization in its oldest and most schematic form-dates back to the middle of the Paleozoic era (Silurian and Devonian peri ods). The locomotory part is built round a fibrous longitudinal axis, the noto 6 Ostracodennfish o the Scottish Devonian, from Traquair. The head is a flat box formed of imbricated plates, pierced with orifices, within which all the elements of the anterior field-organs of prehension, ingestion, and responsiveness and the whole nervous apparatus that operates them-are com bined. There are no jaws; the mouth is an opening shaped like a sucker, whose periphery is equipped with electric organs. But the brain box already houses the fragile nervous apparatus that controls the organs sensitive to light, vibrations, taste, and smell, grouped at the extremity of the spinal cord. This node of specialized nerve cells is already the center of operations from which fibers not only spread out to the sense organs but also control and coordinate the system as a whole. Between the brain box and the body, at the boundary between the anterior field and the part concerned with locomotion, is a pectoral fin or articulated paddle. All the elements necessary for the analysis of vertebrates as far as the human being are already there: a rigid cranial box framing the mouth and protecting the brain, locomotory organs closely connected with me base of the skull, and the anterior limb located somewhere between the two. Like the lampreys or hag fish of today, to which they are related, the ostracodermi, fish with suckers, have a structure that has never been subjected to certain selective factors. The situation is altogether different with the elasmobranchs (sharks and rays), bony fish, and dip noans (and coelacanths), which, as far back as in the Devonian period, were already jawed vertebrates and showed a great variety of combinations. With the help of embryology as much as of fossils, paleontologists have estab lished that the mandible of vertebrates must derive from one of the arches that sup port the gills. The exact process which, from the Devonian onward, culminated in the emergence of fish with an articulated jaw has not been completely elucidated, but it is certain that from that time on the skull of vertebrates acquired a new and most important function, that of serving as a support for the jaws. After that, the mechanical constraints of locomotion and those of operating the jaws were to dom inate cranial development as a whole. Certain types already were modern fish, both phylogenetically and functionally, and the ancestors of the coelacanths and the modern lungfishes already show features that foreshadow adaptation to life on land. The foregoing pages, which merely summarize a set of long-established facts to be found in any work on human evolution, are included in the present work only because they demonstrate an important point. The whole animal kingdom was divided from its earliest beginnings into a relatively limited number of functional types, the choice (not always completely clear-cut) being between sessile and mobile habits or between radial and bilateral symmetry.
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Musculature of the axial skeleton muscle relaxant m 58 59 purchase pletal 50mg with amex, body wall muscle relaxant liquid 50 mg pletal overnight delivery, and limbs is derived from somites muscle relaxant injection for back pain purchase 100 mg pletal, which initially form as somitomeres and extend from the occipital region to the tail bud spasms bladder order pletal 50mg with mastercard. Immediately after segmentation, these somitomeres undergo a process of epithelization and form a "ball" of epithelial cells with a small cavity in the center. The ventral region of each somite then becomes mesenchymal again and forms the sclerotome. Cells from these two areas migrate and proliferate to form progenitor muscle cells ventral to the dermatome, thereby forming the dermomyotome. Cells in the ventral and medial walls of the somite lose their epithelial characteristics and migrate around the neural tube and notochord, and some move into the parietal layer of lateral plate mesoderm. Cells from both regions migrate ventral to the dermatome to form the dermomyotome. In combination, somitic cells and lateral plate mesoderm cells constitute the abaxial mesodermal domain, while the primaxial mesodermal domain only contains somitic cells (paraxial mesoderm). Together, dermatome cells and the muscle cells that associate with them form the dermomyotome. The dermomyotome begins to differentiate: Myotome cells contribute to primaxial muscles, and dermatome cells form the dermis of the back. The new description is based on the actual embryological origin of muscle cells from two different populations of muscle cell precursors, the abaxial and primaxial cells, and not their T1 Thoracic myotomes Mesenchymal condensation of limb bud Limb axis Epithelial ridge Eye Figure 11. The description does not preclude the fact that epaxial (above the axis) muscles (back muscles) are innervated by dorsal primary rami, whereas hypaxial (below the axis) muscles (body wall and limb muscles) are innervated by ventral primary rami. Body wall muscles Extensor muscle of limb Hypaxial muscles Flexor muscle of limb Figure 11. Hypaxial muscles (limb and body wall) are innervated by ventral (anterior) primary rami. Myofibrils soon appear in the cytoplasm, and by the end of the third month, cross-striations, typical of skeletal muscle, appear. A similar process occurs in the seven somitomeres in the head region rostral to the occipital somites. However, somitomeres never segregate into recognizable regions of sclerotome and dermomyotome segments prior to differentiation. Tendons for the attachment of muscles to bones are derived from sclerotome cells lying adjacent to myotomes at the anterior and posterior borders of somites. In the head region, these connective tissues are derived from neural crest cells; in cervical and occipital regions, they differentiate from somitic mesoderm; and in the body wall and limbs, they originate from the parietal layer of lateral plate mesoderm. Patterns of muscle formation in the head are directed by connective tissue elements derived from neural crest cells. The mesenchyme is derived from dorsolateral cells of the somites that migrate into the limb bud to form the muscles. As in other regions, connective tissue dictates the pattern of muscle formation, and this tissue is derived from the parietal layer of lateral plate mesoderm, which also gives rise to the bones of the limb (see chapter 12). At the end of the fourth week of development, limb buds become visible as outpocketings from the ventrolateral body wall. Initially, the limb buds consist of a mesenchymal core derived from the parietal (somatic) layer of lateral plate mesoderm that will form the bones and connective tissues of the limb, covered by a layer of cuboidal ectoderm. This ridge exerts an inductive influence on adjacent mesenchyme, causing it to remain as a population of undifferentiated, rapidly proliferating cells, the progress zone. In 6-week-old embryos, the terminal portion of the limb buds becomes flattened to form the hand- and footplates and is separated from the proximal segment by a circular constriction. Later, a second constriction divides the proximal portion into two segments, and the main parts of the extremities can be recognized. Further formation of the digits depends on their continued outgrowth under the influence of the five segments of ridge ectoderm, condensation of the mesenchyme to form cartilaginous digital rays, and the death of intervening tissue between the rays. Development of the upper and lower limbs is similar except that morphogenesis of the lower limb is approximately 1 to 2 days behind that of the upper limb. Also, during the seventh week of gestation, the limbs rotate in opposite directions.
If a study is to be used as the basis for risk assessment and setting advisory limits spasms kidney stones generic pletal 100 mg with mastercard, agencies are strongly encouraged to review the actual study data to determine its applicability to their local conditions muscle relaxant with least side effects purchase pletal 100mg fast delivery. Two categories of fisher survey data are discussed: sport fishers and subsistence fishers muscle relaxant drug class discount 100 mg pletal overnight delivery. Although the surveys are divided into these two categories for ease of presentation muscle spasms xanax purchase cheap pletal line, these two categories cannot be strictly defined. They are presented by Region, proceeding from east to west across the United States. Tables B-3 and B-5 present consumption rate data for sport and subsistence fishers, respectively. The tables list consumption in grams per day; however, it should be noted that these values are estimates that are generally obtained by recall, not strict log-keeping. In addition, surveys generally ask about the number of meals eaten in a given time frame, but the size of these meals is generally imprecisely estimated. In addition to quantitative data, information regarding the types of fish included in the consumption rates is included with the consumption rate, because it directly impacts the quantitative data presented in the rate tables. These distinctions include Inclusion of freshwater fish, saltwater fish, or both Inclusion of sport and/or commercially caught fish. The methods of conducting fish consumption surveys and the reporting of information from these surveys may differ among studies and many of the differences are highlighted in the survey methods tables. Some studies average the consumption rates over all individuals, regardless of whether they ate fish, while other surveys average the information only for those individuals who reported eating fish. Although some of the survey characteristics are noted in the tables, agencies should consult the individual surveys to obtain the most complete descriptions of the study and resulting consumption rates. In addition to the studies of sport and subsistence fishers, national survey results are discussed at the end of this section. Surveys of the general sport fishing population may include those who primarily fish for recreational purposes or eat fish for a small portion of the year but may also include some individuals who eat fish as a main staple in their diets. Fish consumption data obtained from sport fisher surveys are summarized in Table B-3 and the survey methods used to collect the data are summarized in Table B-4. Sport Fishersa Consumption Data Consumption Rates (g/d) Fisher Group Alabama fishers1 Louisiana (coastal) fishers New York fishers 3 2 Mean 45. Sport fishers may include some individuals who eat fish as a large portion of their diets. Subsistence Fishersa Consumption Data Consumption Rates (g/d) Fisher Group Great Lakes tribes1 Columbia River tribes2 High-end Caucasian consumers on Lake Michigan3 Native Alaskan adults4 Mean 351 58. These fishers rely on fish to meet nutritional needs, as an inexpensive food source, and, in some cases, because of their cultural traditions. Subsistence fishers often have higher consumption rates than other fisher groups; however, consumption rates vary considerably among subsistence fishers. If studies contained in this section are used to estimate exposure patterns for a subsistence population of concern, care should be taken to match the dietary and population characteristics of the two populations as closely as possible. This section is not suggesting that similarities exist between populations, other than in their consumption of a relatively large quantity of fish. Information is provided below on some qualitative characteristics of specific subsistence population groups. Subsistence Fishersa Survey Description Number Surveyed 69 717 Contact Method/ Instrument Tribe/mail Tribe/random/personal interview Otherd/personal interview Tribe/random/personal interview Reporting Methodb Recall Recall Recall Catch vs. Their consumption patterns in this regard may result in greater exposure to contaminants. For example, many Asian-American subsistence fishers eat raw fish, liver, hepatopancreas, kidneys, brains, and eyes of bottom-dwelling fish such as carp and catfish that bioaccumulate more toxicants due to the scavenging habits). They may use whole fish in soup stocks and consume seaweed and other aquatic species that may contain the same contaminants as fish. Fish advisory programs have only recently begun to address concerns associated with this subpopulation, and some studies are underway to evaluate consumption patterns. Current information is primarily qualitative; however, differing patterns have been identified among the populations considered: Laotians, Hmong, Cambodian, and Vietnamese (Allbright, 1994; Cung, 1994; Den, 1994; Lorenzano, 1994; NehlsLowe, 1994; Pestana, 1994; Shubat et al. Native American groups in some areas include fish extensively in their cultural, ceremonial, and dietary patterns.