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Assistant Professor, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine
A number of countries reported that admissibility issues for extraterritorial electronic evidence often turn on whether mutual legal assistance procedures have been properly followed allergy symptoms 5dp5dt discount 10mg claritin amex. One country allergy forecast last week generic 10mg claritin visa, for example allergy medicine for infants buy generic claritin 10 mg online, emphasized that `foreign evidence adduced in criminal proceedings must be in the form of testimony and any exhibit annexed to such a testimony allergy shots pregnancy order cheapest claritin and claritin. The greater number of countries that admit electronic evidence reported that it is treated in the same way as physical evidence. Just under 40 per cent of countries, for example, reported the existence of a legal distinction between electronic and physical evidence. For countries without a legal distinction between electronic and physical evidence, many reported that electronic evidence, like its traditional counterpart, `must be: admissible; authentic; accurate; complete and convincing to juries. Responding countries reported all of: the physical transportation of seized computers to court; the use in court of copies of computer data stored on optical disk; the use in court of printouts of electronic evidence filed in binders; and the presentation of an expert analytical report and testimony only to the court (with the computer data remaining in storage). These included through testimony delivered by police officers; through testimony delivered by forensic practitioners, including presentation of digital information on projectors and widescreen monitors; and through printouts identifying objects, documents, photographs, logs, and screen captures. One country in Europe, for example, noted that presentation of electronic evidence in court `Depends on the actual state and place of the evidence. One country in the Americas, for instance, reported that `Electronic trials are not yet common place. Not all courtrooms are wired for the purpose of allowing the [State] to present its case electronically. Currently the [State] must obtain the consent of the judge and defence counsel to use technology in the courtroom. For those that did, laws concerned areas such as legal assumptions concerning ownership or authorship of electronic data and documents, as well as circumstances in which electronic evidence may be considered authentic. The nature of cybercrime means that a mediating device, in the form of a computer system, is usually situated between the perpetrator and the victim leading to challenges in attribution of acts to specific persons. In cases where a defendant is prosecuted, for example, for possession of illegal computer content, it must be established that the content was knowingly placed on the device by the defendant, and not by another person with access to the device. In this respect, one country commented that: `Circumstantial evidence will often be the only means by which to establish identification of who is speaking or 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 Ibid. The following methods have proven helpful: proving possession of the communication device (seizure upon arrest or execution of a warrant), subscriber information, surveillance (pursuant to a court authorization, where required), analysis of the content of the communication, and forensic examination of the communication device. Rather, countries referred to a variety of traditional and cyber-specific techniques to `associate the electronic evidence to a computer system under the control of [the] defendant, or to which [the] defendant has access. Standard proof techniques apply including motivation, opportunity, corroborative non-electronic evidence, control of evidence, state-of-mind evidence, and evidence which supports excluding others. Good practices in this area were highlighted not only by developed countries, but also by a number of developing countries indicating increasing levels of global dialogue and dissemination of technical standards in the areas of electronic evidence. Nonetheless, many institutions in developing countries including law enforcement and prosecution authorities highlight a significant lack of capacity and resources to fully implement such standards. In addition, in a few countries, legal obstacles such as the inadmissibility of all electronic evidence, and the inadmissibility of extraterritorial electronic evidence, present serious obstacles to the prosecution of cybercrime acts. It considers challenges and good practices reported by prosecutors and courts, and identifies the possible impact of these on prosecutions and convictions of cybercrime perpetrators. Prosecution challenges and good practices Responding countries identified prosecution good practices and challenges across the criminal justice process, from case intake to final case disposition. Prosecutors also identified the challenge discussed in the previous section of this Chapter of attribution of evidence of an act to an individual. One country, for example, stated that `In general, attribution is the hardest thing in a cybercrime investigation, so therein lies a practical obstacle to successful prosecution. Countries repeatedly reinforced the importance of evidence collection and presentation. Additional training and resources were indicated as challenges, including `better guidance to the courts at all levels by summarizing (and sharing) judicial experience to allow identification and uniform standards in computer information system security cases. Criminal justice system effectiveness and outcomes Core aims of the criminal justice response, to any crime, are to achieve just outcomes for perpetrators and victims, alongside specific deterrence, rehabilitation and societal reintegration for convicted offenders, and a sense of general deterrence for potential perpetrators. For a set of six countries, mostly in Europe, however, it was possible to calculate the average number of persons brought into formal contact with law enforcement Figure 6.
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Of those allergy medicine lower immune system order 10 mg claritin with amex, 43% were substantiated allergy usa claritin 10 mg overnight delivery, 31% were inconclusive allergy forecast lincoln ne buy claritin 10mg visa, and 34% were not considered cases of abuse allergy medicine reviews generic claritin 10mg with visa. This appears to be a slight improvement when compared to previous years; however, the authors contend that it is still higher than any year prior to 1995. While the date of when these figures were compiled is unclear, the 2001 publication shows that 6,011 cases of child sexual abuse were reported, accounting for 7. There were 2,050 reports of sexual abuse in 1998, 2,265 reports in 1999, and 2,354 in 2000. Note that "Other" includes drug exposure, addiction at birth, gunshot wounds, medical care needed and child fatalities, among others. While the date of when these figures were compiled is unclear, there were 1,290 cases of child sexual abuse reported, accounting for 47. This is based upon an estimated population of 3,245,451 children under the age of 18. Retrieved April, 2003, from Based upon official figures collected by Child Protective Services, 42,979 reports were filed concerning child abuse and neglect during 2000. When the types of abuse are examined, 63% involved neglect, 19% involved physical abuse, 10% involved sexual abuse, and 8% involved sexual maltreatment. While the date of when these figures were compiled is unclear, there were 1,023 cases involving sexual abuse. In 1996, the rape crisis centers in Kentucky reported 5,800 cases of sexual abuse/assault. Statewide, 10,610 incidents of child abuse were reported and of those cases, 4,624 were substantiated by social workers. The news article focuses upon the subject of child sexual abuse, but the numbers are not distributed according to specific types of abuse. It appears as if the phrases "child sexual abuse" and "child abuse" are used interchangeably. Paul: the original Minnesota survey was conducted in order to ascertain a portrait of adolescent life. However, the authors of this piece felt that the portrait was inaccurate, because at-risk adolescents were excluded due to the design of the study. A slightly revised edition of the 1989 study was administered in 1991 to a sample of 3,573 students in Minnesota alternative schools, area learning centers, residential treatment centers, and Corrections/Detention centers. The data collected from this group was then compared to the 91,175 students who participated in the original 1989 Minnesota Student Survey. For alternative schools there were 2,425 completed surveys that included students ages 12 to 21. The results are as follows: 16% of females and 2% of males reported intrafamilial sexual abuse (compared to 8% of females and 2% of males in regular schools); 35% of females and 5% of males reported extrafamilial abuse (compared to 17% and 3% respectively); and, 38% of females and 5% of males reported either/both types of sexual abuse (compared to 20% and 4% respectively). Four hundred and sixty-one surveys were collected from Corrections/Detention centers. These results illustrate that 17% of females and 9% of males reported intrafamilial sexual abuse (compared to 5% and 2% respectively); 45% of females and 15% of males reported extrafamilial sexual abuse (compared to 17% and 2% respectively); and 48% of females and 17% of males reported either/both types of sexual abuse (compared to 18% and 3% respectively). Three hundred and forty-eight surveys were returned from adolescents in Residential Treatment Centers. Forty-one percent of females and 8% of males reported intrafamilial abuse (compared to 10% and 2% respectively); 54% of females and 16% of males reported extrafamilial abuse (compared to 16% and 3% respectively); and 63% of females and 18% of males reported either/both types of sexual abuse (compared to 19% and 3% respectively). This article evaluates unsubstantiated child maltreatment reports where voluntary preventive services were provided by the state. Data is also presented on substantiated cases in order to see how the services offered varied when based upon substantiation. The initial data consisted of all child abuse and neglect cases reported to the Missouri Department of Family Services (N = 48,415) during the 1992 calendar year. Sexual abuse cases showed statistically significant differences between the preventive services group and the control group.
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She concluded that her desire to live as a woman was an outgrowth of her autogynephilic sex drive: Last year allergy shots and anxiety buy claritin 10 mg with amex, things progressed to the point where I left my wife and began living full time allergy medicine stronger than zyrtec order 10mg claritin, taking hormones and antiandrogens allergy symptoms 5dp5dt buy claritin online from canada. After I had been taking the hormones and antiandrogens for 3 months allergy testing erie pa discount generic claritin canada, I totally lost my sex drive. That was 8 months ago, and now that my sex drive is back to normal, I am again struggling. I think about going back to living full-time as a woman, an experience that more than exceeded my wildest dreams. This desire does not go away, but the hormones caused me to lose my desire temporarily. I would only be satisfied with a level of hormones and antiandrogens that would maximize my transformation. But even though it is such a pleasant, wonderful feeling when I am fully transformed into a woman, that feeling unfortunately is generated from my male sex drive. A physician informant similarly described how her desire to cross-dress waxed and waned with her changing testosterone levels. In her case, this was caused by the addition or withdrawal of transdermal testosterone following her orchiectomy, rather than by stopping or starting feminizing hormones: I am a licensed, board certified surgeon who is transgendered. I want to describe my recent discovery of the overwhelming (and seemingly contradictory) role of testosterone in this process. During my entire life, I have had the strong desire to be female and make a sex transition. I had a persistent desire to cross-dress and did so from as early as I can remember. Although I was excited to get dressed in female clothing, once dressed, I was always very relaxed and any emotional excitement subsided. Although I have taken hormone therapy for several months at a time, I have never been on hormones for more than 3 months continuously. During those times, however, I never experienced a decrease in the desire to dress in female clothing. Approximately 18 months ago, I had a bilateral orchiectomy, as I felt it would make the transition easier and would allow me to use lower doses of estrogen. Even without any hormone therapy, the physical changes became progressive and dramatic. My body hair almost totally disappeared, my skin became smoother, and I began to lose muscle mass and strength. Effects of Hormone Therapy 151 Interestingly, I totally lost the drive to cross-dress. When I developed rather troubling symptoms of hot flashes and sweats and I began using the new topical testosterone, the drive and urge to crossdress again became prominent. I was fascinated with this finding; I tried again, stopping and starting testosterone (without taking any estrogen) and the phenomenon repeated. I know that this is a one-person experiment and that I am not an unbiased observer. The point is that the result was totally unexpected, and although I believe I have read just about every article on transsexualism, transgender, and transvestism, I have never seen it mentioned. Yet another informant described how a high dose of estrogen and antiandrogen eliminated both her libido and her desire to present as a woman, whereas a low dose of estrogen-insufficient to completely suppress testosterone-preserved her desire to present as a woman: From the earliest time I can recall, I felt like I wanted to be female. Cross-dressing usually involved a pattern of dressing up, masturbating, and intense feelings of guilt and shame. An on-line gender therapist suggested I take Diane-35 [an estrogen/progesterone combination] to help alleviate the tensions I felt. I started taking it and, to my surprise, these worked just like they were described. My libido went down, my erections were nil, and I even lost the compulsion to present as a woman.
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