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Sexual dimorphism includes obvious body characteristics such as the form of the external genitalia as well as the organization of various neural systems and is determined by whether the sperm contributes an X or a Y sex chromosome when it fertilizes the egg menstrual irregularities in perimenopause generic lady era 100mg amex. When the ovaries begin to secrete gonadotropins pregnancy indigestion cheap lady era line, the secondary sex characteristics and the brain will be feminine menstruation tracker order lady era. The critical gene that determines whether or not the gonads will become either ovaries or testes is located in the middle of the short arm of the Y chromosome menopause lubricant discount lady era 100mg free shipping. The testes in turn secrete two hormones that are responsible for the phenotypic development of the fetus as a male. If these hormones are lacking, no signals are sent to alter the intrinsic default developmental sequence, and the fetus develops as a female. Testosterone, secreted by the Leydig cells of the testes, changes the sex organs, mammary gland anlage, and nervous system into the male pattern. Thus the primary secretion of the fetal ovaries is reinforced by estrogen from the mother. Phoenix and colleagues wondered what would happen if female fetuses were exposed to higher than normal levels of testosterone. To answer this question, they injected large amounts of testosterone into pregnant guinea pigs. The external genitalia were unequivocally male, but the internal genitalia were female. In normal adult female guinea pigs, administration of estrogen and progesterone produces strong lordosis when the female is mounted by the male. Lordosis is a gender-specific behavior activated in the adult female by the presence of estrogens in the circulation. Phoenix and colleagues found that the female guinea pigs exposed to testosterone in utero demonstrated little lordotic behavior when injected with estrogen and progesterone as adults. However, although they had functioning ovaries, they displayed as much mounting behavior as male litter mates when injected with testosterone. Mounting behavior is often used as an experimental index of the male behavior pattern and is seldom seen in normal adult females, even with testosterone injections. Prenatal exposure to testosterone may have not only produced masculine external genitalia but may also have changed parts of the circuitry of the brain to the masculine pattern. There are relatively short critical periods in the development of the animal when manipulation of levels of sex steroids makes a difference in development of adult patterns of sexual behavior. The testes appear on the 13th day of embryonic life and secrete androgens until the 10th day after birth. Castration at the day of birth causes male rats to display female sexual behavior as adults when injected with estrogen and progesterone and mounted by normal males. Male rat pups castrated after postnatal day 10 will not display lordosis as adults. This suggests that there is a short critical period when the brain is influenced by testosterone to develop circuitry for male sexual behavior. As noted previously, release of hormones from the anterior pituitary is under control of the hypothalamus. If ovaries are implanted into adult genetic males that were castrated within 1 day of birth, these ovaries can cyclically ovulate, and the host male rats demonstrate behavior normally shown by females in estrus. Thus females exposed to high levels of testosterone during the critical developmental periods will exhibit mounting behavior at a rate similar to that of genetic males, and males lacking testosterone during the critical period will fail to exhibit mounting behavior, but will exhibit lordosis when exposed as adults to estrogen. A correlated observation to the results of these experimental manipulations is that in normal males and females, exposure to homotypic hormones (i. These observations suggest that the brain (1) must be responsive to sex steroids, and (2) there should be differences in organization of at least some parts of the brain between males and females. For the central nervous system to respond to gonadal hormones, receptors for androgens, estrogen, and progesterone must exist in neural tissue. Such receptors are located in neurons found in several regions of the central nervous system of the rat and monkey. These areas include not only the hypothalamus, but also the frontal and cingulate cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, midbrain, and spinal cord. Unlike receptors for neurotransmitters, receptors for sex steroids are typically found in the cell nucleus, not in the cell-limiting membrane. This action permits these hormones potentially to exert influence over many functions of the cell. The presence of receptors for the different gonadal hormones in the brain differs between the sexes.
In contrast women's health clinic bowling green ky order cheap lady era online, the term social network ties is a more quantitative concept that embraces the number menstrual period age 8 generic 100 mg lady era overnight delivery, structure womens health 5 minute abs order lady era 100mg visa, or pattern of ties that one has with other people or organizations pregnancy labor purchase lady era toronto. The mere existence of social ties is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for social support, nor is the absolute number of ties strongly correlated with social support. In fact, some types of social ties may be intrusive, stressful, or, at best, perfunctory. Close friendships and relationships with partners, spouses, or family members that are perceived as valuable or helpful engender social support. Social relationships, including those with family members and significant others, may be at best a mixed blessing: Many of the stresses that we experience evolve from our interactions with others. These stresses may arise from interactions with our very own family members, who may experience different intensities and outcomes of stress. Research has demonstrated the differential effects of spousal ties on men and women, the former being more likely to receive positive, protective effects from the marital relationship. Some data suggest that women, in comparison to men, give and receive more support yet tend to have higher rates of psychological distress (Fuhrer, Stansfield, Chemali, & Shipley, 1999). Social Support and Health-Related Outcomes Investigators have examined the association among stress, social support, and mental and physical health outcomes, the latter including complications of pregnancy, all-cause mortality, chronic disease, and immune status. For example, isolated elderly persons who live in the community may be at higher risk of mortality than those who maintain social engagement. As a second example, immune status as a function of social support was studied among the spouses (assumed to be experiencing severe, chronic life stresses) of cancer patients; in comparison to those with low levels of support, spouses with higher levels of social support had better indexes of immune function. The Buffering Model of Social Support the term buffering (sometimes called moderating) suggests that the impacts of noxious stimuli or stresses are attenuated by the availability of social support; absence of support, according to the buffering hypothesis, is linked to experiencing of the full consequences of stressful situations (Cobb, 1976; Kaplan, Cassel, & Gore, 1977; LaRocco, House, & French, 1980). The stress-buffering effect is more likely to occur when the social network is perceived as ready to provide assistance. The buffering model has also been extended to social network ties by specifying that they may lessen the adverse psychological consequences of stress (Friis & Nanjundappa, 1989). The buffering role of social support is attractive to practitioners, who view social relationships as more amenable to change than are the conditions in which adversity arises. Theorists posit that social support buffers some stressors more effectively than others, depending on the nature of the stressor. For example, a person who experiences a socially acceptable stress (such as personal illness) may be more likely to seek assistance from social support resources than would one who is confronted with a less socially acceptable stress, such as substance abuse (Mitchell, Billings, & Moos, 1982). Social Support and Mental Disorders Much research has addressed the role of stressors and social support in the etiology of mental disorders. Noting that individuals vary considerably in their vulnerabilities to stressors, some authorities believe that social support may help to explain why some individuals who face high levels of stress do not develop psychiatric disorders (Lin & Dean, 1984). Absence of social support may be linked to psychiatric symptoms, especially depressive symptoms. Studies of patients who were suffering from depression reported that they had significantly less social support than did control patients. Not only do some researchers believe that the presence of social support plays a crucial role in the positive functioning of psychiatric patients, but lack of social support has also been associated with rehospitalization for depression. Social support and social networks, and coronary heart disease and rehabilitation. Gender, social relations and mental health: Prospective find- Sources of Social Support Variations in the effects of support are believed to be related to the source of support; these effects may be conditioned by marital status, age, and gender. For example, support from spouses or friends may be more important than support from other network ties. During this process, individuals acquire ways of learning, thinking, acting, and feeling that enable them to familiarize themselves with the culture and participate in the social process. The main agents of socialization typically include family, peers, schools, media, and religion. Although the socialization process is most evident during childhood and adolescence, it covers the entire course of the life span. A clear example of resocialization is what happens when someone joins a branch of the armed services. The uniforms, the regulations, and the regimen require the new recruit to learn new behaviors and attitudes appropriate to the new role. The first approach emphasizes the individual and the development of the individual in the context of the culture and society.
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Experiencing is seen as the entry point to processes leading to personality change and psychological improvement menstrual extraction procedure buy cheap lady era on-line. It is the primary navigational aid regarding a productive course of therapeutic interaction pregnancy quant levels order 100mg lady era free shipping. Therapeutic moves (empathic response breast cancer 3rd stage generic lady era 100 mg without prescription, interpretation breast cancer 5 year survival order lady era amex, suggestion, question, confrontation, chair work, psychoeducation, etc. When experiencing becomes more open, emotional, complex, intricate, sensation based, and accurately expressible in words or other symbols, the move has had a desirable experiential effect. The experiential therapist can thereby quickly correct unhelpful moves, rather than persisting with faulty plans and generating problems in the therapeutic relationship. References to the experiential way of doing therapy are found in the works of many major early psychotherapists. Carl Rogers developed a method of psychotherapy in which client experiencing is centrally relied upon to guide the course of therapy, as counterpoint to the widely held belief that the doctor should guide the therapy. Malone may have been the first to use the term experiential psychotherapy to describe their approach. Eugene Gendlin, who worked closely with Rogers, developed the philosophical basis that makes systematic the experiential method. This is the tendency, found in any living organism, to behave in ways that fulfill and further perfect the capacities, according to its nature, of the organism as a whole. Experiencing is considered inherently life-promoting for both the individual and the social group, and generally more so with more awareness. The actualization of healthy potentials implicit in experiencing does not depend only on the individual, but is seen as highly dependent on the interpersonal (and other environmental) conditions with which the person interacts currently and with which the person has interacted historically. Certain patterns of relating to experiencing (or avoiding it) may result; these patterns shape the positive potential of experiencing into negative and ineffective forms of expression. Therapy, then, is very much about changing problematic attitudes toward experiencing. The therapeutic relationship establishes a safe climate within which, aided by the expertise of the therapist, the client can better articulate, express, and live out experiencing. The process of doing this takes time and involves many little successes before major and lasting change is accomplished. When something in experiencing that has been poorly symbolized is finally approached with an empathic attitude that results in more accurate symbolization, there is a bodily sigh of relief known as a felt shift. When a person regularly and reliably relates to experiencing so as to get these felt shifts, he or she is said to have a high level of experiencing. Many studies have found psychological benefits associated with high levels of experiencing. Thus many different approaches to helping the client are usable, limited only by what the therapist knows and can work with skillfully. Therapist and client both rely on responses from their body senses to the steps of therapeutic interaction in order to guide the way toward improvement that is both uniquely right for the client and in the theoretically and interpersonally desirable direction. Boring (1954) developed three meanings in psychology for the word control: (1) a check, in the sense of verification; (2) a restraint, in the sense of maintaining constancy; and (3) a guide or direction. Since people not in psychological experiments do learn, mature, and change from experiences in daily living, experimental control groups for comparison purposes are valuable, almost necessary, in most of psychology in order to have a context in which to interpret meaningful research findings. In addition, the almost inherent lack of ability to measure with precision in psychology has a decided influence on changes in observations over time. The research context in which the observations are made, the possible reaction of participants to the somewhat unusual conditions of the psychological research study, and motivational differences between the experimental and control groups can also reduce the quality of the comparisons needed for interpretation. These concerns are also the subject of experimental design and research methodology. Early attempts to develop experimental controls in psychological research included attempting to hold all variables constant except those being deliberately manipulated. This is difficult to do with human participants; it can be done only within rather broad limits, and it often makes the experimental conditions so artificial that generalizations to the everyday psychological world are difficult. Participants in psychological research are sometimes used as their own experimental controls; they are observed, an experimental condition is applied, and then they are observed again. This method is useful if a large number of observations are made prior to and after the experimental condition. When the experimental treatment can be applied and withdrawn over time-again with many observations made in each interval between conditions-the experimental control is better.
In these instances womens health 4th edition by youngkin order lady era canada, the sexual conduct may be used to make the harasser feel powerful womens health 9 diet 100 mg lady era fast delivery, and he or she may not even feel sexually aroused by the situation menopause lower back pain cheap 100mg lady era with visa. Supreme Court ruling women's health center bryan texas 100mg lady era with amex, victims of sexual harassment no longer have to prove that they have been damaged in some way-physically, economically, or psychologically-by the sexual harassment. However, there is evidence that female victims of sexual harassment are more likely to meet criteria for major depression and posttraumatic stress disorder during their lifetime than Summary Sexual harassment involves unwelcome sexual conduct that is committed or permitted by a person in a position of authority that can lead to perceived or real negative work consequences or creates a hostile work environment. The harasser may be a supervisor or coworker, male or female, and of the opposite or same sex as the victim. Victims of sexual harassment are at risk for major depression and posttraumatic stress disorder, although proving that a victim suffered psychological consequences is no longer required as evidence that sexual harassment occurred. Although it is usually considered in the context of marriage, premarital and extramarital intercourse are also widely practiced. Adolescents appear to be engaging in sexual intercourse more frequently than in the past. Sexual intercourse generally refers to penile penetration of the vagina, the most common sexual expression between opposite-sexed partners practiced in the United States. In a large national survey study of over 3,000 participants, Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, and Michaels (1994) found that 95% of men and 97% of women reported that they had experienced vaginal intercourse. Other sexual techniques with opposite-sex partners include anal intercourse and oral sex (both cunnilingus, i. These sexual expressions are far less common, however, than vaginal intercourse both in terms of life incidence and most recent experience. In practice, North American sexual customs have changed from a double standard in which sexual intercourse was permissible for males but not for females to a standard of permissiveness with affection. Many adolescents and adults, however, still adhere to a standard of abstinence until marriage as an ideal. Despite that, the age at first intercourse has steadily declined over the past 40 years, according to Laumann et al. Whereas American partners prefer a face-to-face, man-above position, this practice is by no means a universal preference. In Human Sexuality, McCary (1967) noted that whereas 70% of American males had never copulated in any other manner, this technique was relatively rare in other cultures. As do many authors of texts and manuals on human sexuality, McCary describes No one is certain why a majority of individuals are heterosexual and a minority are homosexual or why some of us accept the sex in which we are born and others do not. Most clues, however, point to genetic and endocrine forces interacting with social experiences. These biological factors set a bias with which the individual meets society to effect sexual orientation and sexual identity. The strongest evidence that sexual orientation has a biological basis comes from studies of human families and twins. Classical studies in this area were done in the 1950s with identical and fraternal male twin pairs in which at least one of the twins in each pair, at the onset of the study, admitted to homosexual behavior. Among these twins, it was found that if one of the identical twins was homosexual, so, too, was his brother. Among the nonidentical brothers, on the other hand, the twins were essentially similar to the general male population. A slew of studies soon followed that reported identical twins not concordant for homosexuality, and theories that held to a genetic component to homosexuality lost support. Alfred Kinsey as well as Masters and Johnson also argued that homosexuality was of social rather than biological origin. Subsequent research since the 1980s, however, supports a biological component to sexual orientation. In one set of studies, almost 200 families were examined in which at least one member was openly known to be homosexual. Their basic finding was that if a family contained one son who was homosexual, 20% to 25% of his brothers would also be homosexual. If an index brother was heterosexual, the chance of other brothers being homosexual was only 4% to 6%. Another study reported findings of behavioral concordance among six pairs of monozygotic twins reared apart in which at least one member of each pair was homosexually active.